Process for scalable synthesis of molybdenum disulfide monolayer and few-layer films

ABSTRACT

The present disclosure relates to nanosheet synthesis. More particularly, the present disclosure relates to molybdenum sulfide (MoS 2 ) atomic thin films and hydrogen evolution reactions. In one or more embodiments, a synthesis process may include sublimation of sulfur and MoCl 5 , reaction of MoCl 5  and S to produce gaseous MoS 2  species, transfer of the MoS 2  species by carrier gas, diffusion of MoS 2  species from the gas phase onto receiving substrates, and precipitation of MoS 2  on the substrates.

CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application claims the benefit of 61/821,289 filed May 9, 2013, Iezzi et al. entitled “NOVEL PROCESS FOR SCALABLE SYNTHESIS OF MOLYBDENUM DISULFIDE MONOLAYER AND FEW-LAYER FILMS,” which is hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety.

STATEMENT REGARDING FEDERALLY SPONSORED RESEARCH OR DEVELOPMENT

This invention was made with government support under grant number W911NF-11-1-0529 awarded by the U.S. Army Research Office. The government has certain rights to this invention.

1. FIELD OF THE INVENTION

The present disclosure relates to synthesis of monolayer and few-layer films. More particularly, the present disclosure relates to molybdenum sulfide (MoS₂) and hydrogen evolution reactions.

2. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

Demand for hydrogen in relation to fuel cells and energy is expected to reach $14 billion by 2014. Demand for hydrogen is increasing at about 10% per year and will likely increase as more and more companies move towards renewable energy generation such as, for example, in hydrogen fuel cell processes. High quality hydrogen is necessary for these processes, and current platinum catalysts simply do not meet the needs economically.

Molybdenum sulfide (MoS₂) monolayers, with a direct bandgap of 1.8 eV, offer an unprecedented prospect of miniaturizing semiconductor science and technology down to a truly atomic scale. However, there is no way that is able to produce uniform, and high-quality monolayer or few-layer MoS₂ in a wafer-scale.

Progress is needed toward developing competitive materials to reduce the cost of current, expensive catalysts. A sustainable and economical solution to hydrogen production is needed.

3. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

In particular non-limiting embodiments, the present invention provides A synthesis process comprising: (a) sublimation of sulfur and MoCl₅; (b) reaction of MoCl₅ and S to produce gaseous MoS₂ species; (c) transfer of the MoS₂ species by carrier gas; (d) diffusion and precipitation of MoS₂ species from the gas phase onto a substrate under suitable conditions that one to four layer(s) of MoS₂ form on the substrate.

The MoCl₅ may be reacted with sulfur at a temperature of about 300° C. to about 1000° C. or about 600° C. to about 900° C. to give rise to MoS₂ on the substrate. The substrate may be highly ordered pyrolytic graphic (HOPG).

The synthesis process wherein one layer, two layers of MoS₂ or four layers of MoS₂ may be formed on the substrate.

The invention also provides a method of producing hydrogen which comprises contacting a suitable reactant under appropriate conditions with the layered MoS₂ substrate prepared by the synthesis process.

4. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES

FIG. 1—Controlled synthesis of MoS₂ monolayer and bilayer films: (a and b) Optical images of the MoS₂ monolayer and bilayer films grown on sapphire substrates, respectively. The insets are optical images of the MoS₂ monolayer and bilayer films grown on SiO₂/Si substrates. The scale bars in the insets are 80 μm. (c and d) AFM height profiles for typical MoS₂ monolayer and bilayer films grown on sapphire, respectively. The insets show the AFM images from which the height profiles are extracted.

FIG. 2—Large-area uniformity of the synthesized MoS₂ monolayer and bilayer films: (a) A picture for as-grown MoS₂ monolayer (1L) and bilayer (2L) films, along with a NCSU logo. Underneath the films is a blank sapphire wafer, which is transparent and used as a reference. (b) Raman spectra collected from eight different areas of the MoS₂ monolayer film. The inset schematically illustrates how the eight areas distribute across the substrate. (c) Map of the Raman frequency difference Δk collected from an area of 10 μm×10 μm in the MoS₂ monolayer film. All the measured Δk are in the range of 20.3-20.7 cm⁻¹. Mapping step: 0.5 μm. (d) Perspective view of a typical AFM image collected from the MoS₂ monolayer film.

FIG. 3—Characterization of the crystal structure of synthesized MoS₂ monolayer and bilayer films:

(a) High angle annular dark field (HAADF) image of typical MoS₂ monolayer film. Upper inset is the corresponding FFT pattern, which is not indexed for visual convenience (an indexed version is given in Fig. S13 a). Lower inset shows the folded edges of MoS₂ monolayer and bilayer films. The lattice constant and important crystalline directions are given as shown.

(b and c) HAADF of MoS₂ monolayer and bilayer films. The image of the bilayer film (c) is FFT-filtered. The insets show modeled crystal structures of MoS₂ monolayer and bilayer films with blue and yellow dots corresponding to Mo and S atoms, respectively. The sulfur atom in the inset of (c) is not given for visual convenience. The scale bars are 1 nm.

FIG. 4—Optical and electrical characterizations of the synthesized MoS₂ monolayer films:

(a) Photoluminescence (PL) of the synthesized and exfoliated MoS₂ monolayers. Both were dispersed on SiO₂/Si substrates. The synthesized monolayer was grown on sapphire substrates and then transferred to SiO₂/Si substrates for the PL measurement. Inset is PL mapping of an as-grown MoS₂ monolayer on sapphire substrates with the color representing normalized PL intensity at 665 nm as illustrated by the color bar.

(b) I_(ds)-V_(ds) curve for a field effect transistor (FET) made with the synthesized MoS₂ monolayer with gating voltages V_(gs)0, 10, 20, 40 V. Inset, transfer characteristic for the FET with a source drain bias V_(ds) of 2 V.

FIG. 5 Schematic illustration of the synthetic setup used for the non-catalytic chemical vapor deposition growth of atomic-thin MoS₂ films.

FIG. 6 X-ray photoemission spectroscopy of synthetic MoS2 films. Binding energies for (a) Mo atoms and (b) sulfur atoms.

FIG. 7 AFM characterization of MoS₂ monolayer and bilayer films grown on sapphire substrates. (a) Typical AFM image of the synthetic monolayer. The area occupied by the MoS₂ is labeled as shown. (b) Height profile for the white dashed line in (a). (c) Typical AFM image of the synthetic bilayer. The area occupied by the MoS₂ is labeled as shown. (d) Height profile for the white dashed line shown in (c).

FIG. 8 AFM characterization of MoS₂ monolayer and bilayer films grown on SiO₂/Si substrates. (a) Typical AFM image of the synthetic monolayer. The area occupied by the MoS₂ is labeled as shown. (b) Height profile for the white dashed line in (a). (c) Typical AFM image of the synthetic bilayer. The area occupied by the MoS2 is labeled as shown. (d) Height profile for the white dashed line shown in (c).

FIG. 9 Characterization of exfoliated MoS₂ monolayer and bilayer. (a) Optical image of exfoliated monolayer and bilayer dispersed on SiO₂/Si substrates. (b and d) AFM images of the exfoliated MoS₂ monolayer and bilayer. The two images have different magnification to better illustrate the monolayer and bilayer respectively. (c and e) Height profile for the white dashed lines shown in (b) and (d).

FIG. 10 Raman spectra of the MoS₂ monolayer (1L), bilayer (2L), and tetralayer (4L) films grown on SiO₂/Si substrates. Also given are the Raman spectra of exfoliated MoS₂ monolayer and bulk MoS₂ dispersed on SiO₂/Si substrates. The two characteristic Raman modes are labeled.

FIG. 11A Topview of the AFM image given in FIG. 2(panel d) of the text, roughness <0.2 nm.

FIG. 11B (a, b, and c) AFM images taken from different areas of a MoS₂ monolayer grown on sapphire. The distances between the positions that the images were collected are from at least 1 cm. (d, e, and f) Height profiles for the white dashed lines given in (a), (b) and (c) respectively.

FIG. 12 Raman spectra collected from eight different areas of the MoS₂ bilayer films grown on sapphire. The inset shows the eight areas evenly distributed across the substrate.

FIG. 13 (a and b) AFM images collected from different areas of a MoS₂ bilayer grown on sapphire. The distance between the positions that the images were collected from is larger than 1 cm. (c and d) Height profiles for the white dashed lines given in (a) and (b) respectively.

FIG. 14 Transmission electron microscope characterization of synthetic MoS₂ films. (a) Typical TEM image of synthetic MoS₂ films. (b) TEM image showing multiple crystalline domains. The white dashed lines indicate the domain boundary. (c) Typical selected area electron diffraction for the synthetic MoS2 film. Inset a magnified diffraction spot showing multiple points involved. This indicates that the synthetic film is polycrystalline.

FIG. 15 (a) FFT pattern of the atomic image shown in FIG. 3 (panel a) of the text. The pattern is indexed. (b) The original HAADF image of FIG. 3 (panel c) in the text.

FIG. 16 Structure model for 2H—MoS₂. (a) Crystal structure viewed from the [010] direction. (b) Crystal structure viewed from the [001] direction. The dark spheres indicate the Mo atoms, the light spheres indicate the S atoms.

FIG. 17 Photoluminescence of an as-grown MoS₂ monolayer on sapphire and the same monolayer transferred to SiO₂/Si substrate.

FIG. 18 Photoluminescence of synthetic MoS₂ monolayer on sapphire and the same monolayer transferred to SiO₂/Si substrates for the PL measurement.

FIG. 19 Photoluminescence of an as-grown MoS₂ monolayer (1L) and bilayer (2L) on sapphire.

FIG. 20 Correlation of the amount of MoCl₅ vs. the layer number of MoS₂ films. Note: typical experimental conditions used in these growths include: deposition temperature, 850° C.; total pressure, 2-3 torr; flow rate 50 sccm; amount of sulfur, 1 g.

FIG. 21 Rama spectra of the MoS₂ thin films grown with different amounts of MoCl₅. These films have different layer numbers (1L, 2L, 3L, and 4L) as labeled. The layer number was confirmed as shown in FIG. 15. The line to the right indicates the Raman peak of the sapphire substrate. The other lines indicate the positions of the E_(2g) and A_(1g) peaks of the MoS₂ thin films. The frequency difference between the two peaks is given in the figure.

FIG. 22 AFM measurements of the MoS₂ thin films grown using different amounts of MoCl₅. (a, c, e, g) AFM images of MoS₂ thin films; (b, d, f, h) Height profile for the dashed lines given the corresponding AFM images.

FIG. 23 MoS₂ materials grown under widely different total pressures. The amount of MoCl₅ used in these experiments is 15 mg. (a-d) Optical images of the MoS₂ materials grown with widely different total pressures, 2 Torr, 50 Torr, 250 Torr and 750 Torr. Scratches were introduced to show the contrast between the film and the substrate (SiO₂/Si). (e) Raman spectra of the MoS₂ thin films grown under different total pressures. The total pressure for each Raman spectra is labeled as shown. The Δk between E_(2g) and A_(1g) in the Raman spectra is also given in the figure.

FIG. 24 Raman spectra of MoS₂ thin films grown under different total pressures. The amount of MoCl₅ used in these experiments is 4 mg. The total pressure for each of the Raman spectra is labeled as shown. The Δk for the Raman spectra is also given in the figure. We can see that the thickness of the resulting thin film increases with the total pressure.

FIG. 25 Schematic illustration of the synthetic process, which includes five major steps: sublimation, reaction, transfer, diffusion and precipitation. Formulas for the partial pressure Mo are also shown.

FIG. 26 Raman spectra for the MoS₂ thin films grown under different flow rates of carrier gas. The total pressure was maintained to be 5 Torr. The dashed lines indicate that the positions of E_(2g) and A_(1g) peaks remain identical regardless of flow rate.

FIG. 27 Raman spectra of the MoS₂ thin films grown on receiving substrates with different temperatures. The inset shows a schematic illustration of the experimental configuration. The temperature for the substrates can be estimated as 850° C. (sub1), 750° C. (sub2), and 650° C. (sub3). The layer number and the Δk in the Raman spectra of the films grown on these substrates are given as shown.

FIG. 28 Schematic illustration of the interaction between MoS₂ overlayers and receiving substrates. The double headed vertical arrows show the interaction of the overlayers with the substrate. The dashed arrows indicate the escape of atoms from the solid phase to the gas phase.

FIG. 29 Raman spectra of the MoS₂ thin films grown on different substrates. All experimental conditions for the growth on these substrates were kept identical. The Δk in the Raman spectra of the films grown on these differing substrates are given as shown.

5. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

While the disclosure of the technology herein is presented with sufficient details to enable one skilled in this art to practice the invention, it is not intended to limit the scope of the disclosed technology. The inventors contemplate that future technologies may facilitate additional embodiments of the presently disclosed subject matter as claimed herein. Moreover, although the term “step” may be used herein to connote different aspects of methods employed, the term should not be interpreted as implying any particular order among or between various steps herein disclosed unless and except when the order of individual steps is explicitly described.

In research on synthesis of molybdenum sulfide (MoS₂) atomic thin films, structured materials have been developed and designed specifically for hydrogen evolution reaction (HER). Although MoS₂ atomic thin films have been previously developed, our process for developing the sheets is a cheaper and simpler method, and has been shown to be an effective catalyst when compared to platinum. Even under initial testing they have been shown to be relatively durable. We utilize a chemical vapor deposition (CVD) process to deposit the engineered structures on conductive substrates. The substrates are another key to our work. Previously, substrates such as silicon or silicon oxide have been used in relation to CVD. These substrates are relatively easy to deposit the structures on to, but they are not useful. Our process involves deposition on graphite substrates, one that is much more conductive and useful in a catalyst. In at least one embodiment, only two chemicals (sulfur and molybdenum chloride) are used in the production, along with the heat of the furnace, which is another example of our simplified process. To clarify, these electrocatalysts would be used for hydrogen generation. The hydrogen could then be used to generate energy in a proton exchange membrane cell.

Recent increased attention given to clean energy has raised many questions about how the alternatives would be economically viable compared to current methods of energy production. Current high quality hydrogen generation largely relies on the use of expensive platinum catalysts. Our cost efficient catalysts would bridge the gap for high quality hydrogen production, thus allowing increased development of all the benefits associated with hydrogen as a readily available fuel. What separates us will be the processes used to develop these materials. The processes will be able to be scaled up easily, allowing for a low cost of production in addition to the low cost of materials in the catalysts themselves.

Because our CVD process requires only three components (the chemical precursor, a furnace, and an inert gas flow) it would not be difficult to scale up for large scale production. In addition, only three materials are used (sulfur, molybdenum chloride (MoCl₅), and the graphite substrate) which are also much cheaper than current platinum substrates used. Other research already published details use of such compounds as cobalt oxide, which based on material price, are comparable to our catalysts. However, our CVD process is much simpler than current methods of hydrothermal generation and the use of self-assembled monolayers. Many of these processes require several reagents while ours requires only the initial materials and heat.

Utilizing our catalysts could potentially make large scale hydrogen production viable using electrolysis. For immediate application, these catalysts could be used to replace carbon platinum catalysts which are currently the only large scale method of producing hydrogen via electrolysis of water. In addition, by varying the conditions in our experiments, these MoS₂ atomic thin films can also be utilized in lithium ion batteries, and are effective photocatalysts which could be utilized in dye sensitized solar cells. Effective catalysts are also necessary for petroleum and natural gas processing, these materials can be used for hydrodesulfurization as well.

Regarding hydrogen evolution reaction and how a “good” catalyst is characterized, the hydrogen evolution reaction basically consists of two steps, absorption and desorption. The absorption occurs when the protons from the solution attach themselves to the electrode. The electrons on the electrode then combine with the protons to form a hydrogen atom, which then combines with another atom to form a hydrogen gas molecule. Desorption then takes place when the molecule leaves the electrode. The catalytic sites on the catalyst is key to this reaction taking place. We try to achieve a high number of sites for as small an area as possible in our samples.

The catalytic activity is quantified by two main criterion. The first is the exchange current. When aiming for a good catalyst, a large exchange current density is desired. The larger the exchange current in the solution, the more hydrogen will be evolved in that amount of time. Exchange current density can be explained by the rate of electron transfer between the analyte solution and the electrode. The second criterion that is oft used is the Tafel slope which is a calculated value based on the exchange current and the over potential. The over potential is based off the open circuit potential in a cell, which is basically the maximum potential that could be obtained in a cell. Any potential below that max open circuit potential is over potential. This is why platinum is considered the best catalyst, because it has an over potential of basically 0 which means it is operating at the maximum for the cell (or very close to the maximum). The Tafel slope is then calculated with a flat slope being ideal, but even platinum has a slope of around 30 mV/decade. A graph is shown below showing a Tafel slope.

Other research groups are aiming for a high exchange current density and a small Tafel slope. MoS₂ based catalysts, Molybdenum sulfides, efficient and viable materials for electro, and photoelectrocatalytic hydrogen evolution are being investigated. Amorphous molybdenum sulfide films as catalysts for electrochemical are being investigated.

Hydrogen production in water is being investigated. A two-step process (electrochemical then annealing) to produce films is being investigated. A Tafel slope of around 40 was perhaps achieved. Enhanced electrocatalytic activity for hydrogen evolution reaction from self-assembled monodispersed molybdenum sulfide nanoparticles on an Au electrode is being investigated.

Nanoparticles instead of films or sheets are being investigated. The process requires a long ultra sonification process however. In addition, although over potential and exchange current density were good, the Tafel slope was very large, which is not promising. A recent investigation relates to Hydrogen evolution catalyzed by MoS₃ and MoS₂ particles, with some focus on particle development. The process used is rather time consuming, though not very economically intensive. Tafel slopes generated were between 40 and 60.

According to embodiments described herein, Tafel slopes in the 30 s have been recorded and have an over potentials very close to 0 along with good current exchange density. In addition, the time to make a batch of catalysts has been reduced significantly.

Scalable Synthesis of Uniform, High-Quality Monolayer and Few-Layer MoS₂ Films

Two dimensional (2D) materials with a monolayer of atoms represent an ultimate control of material dimension in the vertical direction. Molybdenum sulfide (MoS₂) monolayers, with a direct bandgap of 1.8 eV, offer an unprecedented prospect of miniaturizing semiconductor science and technology down to a truly atomic scale. Indications are toward the promise of 2D MoS₂ in fields including field effect transistors, low power switches, optoelectronics, and spintronics. However, device development with 2D MoS₂ has been delayed by the lack of capabilities to produce large-area, uniform, and high-quality MoS₂ monolayers.

In at least one embodiment, a self-limiting approach can grow high quality monolayer and few-layer MoS₂ films over an area of centimeters with unprecedented uniformity and controllability. This approach is compatible with a fabrication process in semiconductor manufacturing. It paves the way for the development of practical devices with 2D MoS₂ and opens up new avenues for fundamental research.

The significance of 2D materials has been manifested by a plethora of fascinating functionality demonstrated in graphene, a monolayer material of carbon atoms.^(1,2) In contrast to graphene, which is a semi-metal with no bandgap by nature, MoS₂ monolayers offer an attractive semiconductor option due to a direct bandgap of 1.8 eV.^(3,4) This non-trivial bandgap makes MoS₂ monolayers a better candidate than graphene to revolutionize many electronic and photonic devices that are currently dominated by traditional group IV or III-V semiconductor materials.⁵⁻¹⁷ Considerable efforts have been dedicated to achieve scalable synthesis of high quality MoS₂ monolayers that is necessary for the development of practical devices. These include sulfurization of MoO₃ or Mo layers pre-deposited substrates, or thermolysis of Mo compound (NH₄)2MoS₄.¹⁸⁻²⁵ However, none of the existing processes is able to exclusively produce uniform MoS₂ monolayers over a large area, for instance, centimeters. MoS₂ monolayers resulted from these processes always co-exist with by-products of thicker layers. As the properties of MoS₂ materials strongly depend on the layer number, this material non-uniformity poses a formidable challenge for the improvement of device uniformity. Here we present a new, self-limiting CVD approach that can exclusively grow high-quality MoS₂ monolayer films over an area of centimeters on various substrates such as silicon oxide, sapphire, and graphite. The synthesized film shows unprecedented uniformity with no other layers found by thorough characterizations. It exhibits optical and electrical quality comparable to the MoS₂ exfoliated from bulk materials, and can be transferred to other arbitrary substrates. This approach also provides unprecedented controllability, allowing for the growth of few-layer MoS₂ films with precisely controlled layer numbers, such as bilayers, trilayers, and quadra-layers.

Unless defined otherwise, all technical and scientific terms used herein have the same meaning as commonly understood by one of ordinary skill in the art to which this invention belongs. The article “a” and “an” are used herein to refer to one or more than one (i.e., to at least one) of the grammatical object(s) of the article. By way of example, “an element” means one or more elements.

Throughout the specification the word “comprising,” or variations such as “comprises” or “comprising,” will be understood to imply the inclusion of a stated element, integer or step, or group of elements, integers or steps, but not the exclusion of any other element, integer or step, or group of elements, integers or steps. The present invention may suitably “comprise”, “consist of”, or “consist essentially of”, the steps, elements, and/or reagents described in the claims.

It is further noted that the claims may be drafted to exclude any optional element. As such, this statement is intended to serve as antecedent basis for use of such exclusive terminology as “solely”, “only” and the like in connection with the recitation of claim elements, or the use of a “negative” limitation.

Where a range of values is provided, it is understood that each intervening value, to the tenth of the unit of the lower limit unless the context clearly dictates otherwise, between the upper and lower limits of that range is also specifically disclosed. Each smaller range between any stated value or intervening value in a stated range and any other stated or intervening value in that stated range is encompassed within the invention. The upper and lower limits of these smaller ranges may independently be included or excluded in the range, and each range where either, neither or both limits are included in the smaller ranges is also encompassed within the invention, subject to any specifically excluded limit in the stated range. Where the stated range includes one or both of the limits, ranges excluding either or both of those included limits are also included in the invention.

The following Examples further illustrate the invention and are not intended to limit the scope of the invention. In particular, it is to be understood that this invention is not limited to particular embodiments described, as such may, of course, vary. It is also to be understood that the terminology used herein is for the purpose of describing particular embodiments only, and is not intended to be limiting, since the scope of the present invention will be limited only by the appended claims.

6. EXAMPLES Results

FIG. 1—Controlled Synthesis of MoS₂ Monolayer and Bilayer Films:

(a and b) Optical images of the MoS₂ monolayer and bilayer films grown on sapphire substrates, respectively. The insets are optical images of the MoS₂ monolayer and bilayer films grown on SiO₂/Si substrates. The scale bars in the insets are 80 μm.

(c and d) AFM height profiles for typical MoS₂ monolayer and bilayer films grown on sapphire, respectively. The insets show the AFM images from which the height profiles are extracted.

(e) Raman spectra of the MoS₂ monolayer (1L) and bilayer (2L) films grown on sapphire. Also given are the Raman spectra of exfoliated MoS₂ monolayer and bulk MoS₂ dispersed on SiO₂/Si substrates. The two characteristic Raman modes are labeled. The peak at 418 cm⁻¹ is from the sapphire substrate.

We grew MoS₂ films at high temperatures (>800° C.) using MoCl₅ and sulfur as precursor materials. The precursor materials can react at elevated temperature to produce MoS₂ species, which may precipitate onto receiving substrates to yield MoS₂ films (FIG. 5). The layer number of the resulting MoS₂ films can be very precisely controlled by controlling the amount of MoCl₅ used in experiments or the total pressure in the synthetic setup. We have successfully grown the 2D MoS₂ on various substrates including silicon oxide, sapphire, as well as graphite. FIG. 1 (panel a-b) show optical images of the MoS₂ monolayer and bilayer films grown on sapphire substrates. The optical images of MoS₂ monolayer and bilayer films grown on silicon substrates with 280 nm thick silicon oxide (SiO₂/Si) are given as insets. Scratches were intentionally introduced to show the color contrast between the thin films and the substrates (no MoS₂ film exists in the scratched area). We confirm the chemical composition of the thin films is MoS₂ using x-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) characterizations (FIG. 6). From the optical images, we can find that the thin films are continuous and uniform over a large area. We can also find that the color contrasts of MoS₂ monolayer and bilayer films bear little difference on sapphire but are substantially different on SiO₂/Si, the monolayer showing pink color while the bilayer more bluish. This substantial difference in color contrast may provide a facile approach to determine the thickness of 2D MoS₂ materials.

We characterized the synthesized thin films using atomic force microscope (AFM) and Raman spectroscopy. The thickness of the synthesized MoS₂ monolayers and bilayers are shown 0.68 nm and 1.40 nm (FIG. 1 (panels c-d)), in consistence with exfoliated MoS₂ (FIG. 7 and FIG. 8). FIG. 1e shows the Raman spectra collected from the as-grown MoS₂ thin films on sapphire with different layer numbers (the Raman spectra for the MoS₂ films grown on SiO₂/Si is given in FIG. 10). The Raman spectra of exfoliated MoS₂ monolayers and bulk MoS₂ materials are also given in FIG. 1 (panel e) as references. Two characteristic Raman modes can be found in the spectra, the A_(1g) mode associated with the out-of-plane vibration of sulfur atoms and the E_(2g) mode related with the in-plane vibration of Mo and sulfur atoms.²⁶⁻²⁸ The full width at half maximum (FWHM) of the E_(2g) peak may be used as an indicator for crystalline quality. The E_(2g) FWHM of the synthesized MoS₂ monolayer is 4.2 cm⁻¹, close to that of the exfoliated monolayer, 3.7 cm⁻¹. This suggests a good crystalline quality in the synthesized film. Additionally, the frequency difference (Δk) between the E_(2g) and A_(1g) modes has been known closely related with the layer number, and can be used to determine the thickness of MoS₂ materials.²⁶⁻²⁸ We can find that the frequency difference Δk of the synthesized thin film increase with the thickness (FIG. 1 (panel e)), consistent with what were observed on exfoliated MoS₂.²⁶⁻²⁸ The Δk of the synthesized films is generally larger than that of exfoliated MoS₂. For example, the Δk of the synthesized monolayer is found around 20.4 cm⁻¹, different from that of the exfoliated monolayer, 19.4 cm⁻¹. This could be related with certain crystalline imperfection, for example, smaller crystalline grains in the synthesized thin film. Other groups also observed a larger Δk in synthesized MoS₂ materials than exfoliated counterparts.²⁰

FIG. 2—Large-Area Uniformity of the Synthesized MoS₂ Monolayer and Bilayer Films:

(panel a) A picture for as-grown MoS₂ monolayer (1L) and bilayer (2L) films, along with a NCSU logo. Underneath the films is a blank sapphire wafer, which is transparent and used as a reference.

(panel b) Raman spectra collected from eight different areas of the MoS₂ monolayer film. The inset schematically illustrates how the eight areas distribute across the substrate.

(panel c) Map of the Raman frequency difference Δk collected from an area of 10 μm×10 μm in the MoS₂ monolayer film. All the measured Δk are in the range of 20.3-20.7 cm⁻¹. Mapping step: 0.5 μm.

(panel d) Perspective view of a typical AFM image collected from the MoS₂ monolayer film.

The synthesized MoS₂ thin films show unprecedented uniformity. We can find the as-grown MoS₂ thin films continuous and uniform cross an area of centimeters under optical microscope or by eyes, as illustrated by FIG. 1 (panel a) and FIG. 2 (panel a). To more quantitatively assess the uniformity over a large area, we divided the monolayer MoS₂ film grown on a typical sapphire substrate in size of 1 cm×3 cm into eight areas (FIG. 2 (panel b) inset). We measured numerous Raman spectra at each of the areas, and plotted the typical results in FIG. 2 (panel b). We can find that the peak positions of the E_(2g) and A_(1g) modes remain identical between different areas. The profile of the Raman peaks, such as the FWHM, shows negligible difference. This indicates that the synthesized thin film is a homogeneous monolayer with similar crystalline quality across the entire substrate in length of centimeters. We also performed Raman mapping over an area of 10 μm×10 μm in the as-grown monolayer film, and plotted the measured frequency difference Δk in a 2D image (FIG. 2 (panel c)). All the Δk are found in a range of 20.3-20.7 cm⁻¹, confirming the film a homogeneous monolayer. To further confirm the uniformity, we performed multiple AFM measurements at different areas on the film, and found similar thickness and surface topology in all the AFM images (FIG. 11B). A typical AFM measurement (5 μm×5 μm) is given in FIG. 2 (panel d). It shows a continuous and smooth surface (roughness <0.2 nm) with no step and void observed. Similar uniformity can also be found at the synthesized bilayer MoS₂ film (FIG. 12-FIG. 13). We should note that the size of the synthesized thin films (1 cm×3 cm) is limited by the size and temperature uniformity of our current synthetic setup. We believe that by optimizing the synthetic setup we can produce wafer-scale MoS₂ monolayer or few-layer films.

FIG. 3—Characterization of the Crystal Structure of Synthesized MoS₂ Monolayer and Bilayer Films:

(panel a) High angle annular dark field (HAADF) image of typical MoS₂ monolayer film. Upper inset is the corresponding FFT pattern, which is not indexed for visual convenience (an indexed version is given in FIG. 15 (panel a). Lower inset shows the folded edges of MoS₂ monolayer and bilayer films. The lattice constant and important crystalline directions are given as shown.

(panels b and c) HAADF of MoS₂ monolayer and bilayer films. The image of the bilayer film (panel c) is FFT-filtered and the original version is given in FIG. 15 (panel b). The insets show modeled crystal structures of MoS₂ monolayer and bilayer films with blue and yellow dots corresponding to Mo and S atoms, respectively. The sulfur atom in the inset of (panel c) is not given for visual convenience. The scale bars are 1 nm.

The synthesized MoS₂ films exhibit a very good crystalline quality as indicted by the Raman measurements (FIG. 1 (panel e) and FIG. 2 (panel b)). To further elucidate the crystalline structure, we characterized the thin film using aberration-corrected scanning transmission electron microscope (STEM). To do that, we transferred the synthesized film to TEM grids following a process reported in references.¹⁹ The synthesized film is found as polycrystalline with crystalline grains varying from tens to hundreds of nanometers as indicated by selected area electron diffraction patterns (FIG. 14). We used high angle annular dark field (HAADF) imaging to investigate the atomic arrangement in the synthesized MoS₂ monolayer and bilayer films. The monolayer and the bilayer can be identified from the folding edge of the transferred thin film (FIG. 3 (panel a inset)). FIG. 3 (panel a) shows typical STEM high angle annular dark field (HAADF) image and corresponding fast Fourier transformation (FFT) pattern of synthesized monolayers. The hexagonal atomic arrangement shown in the STEM image and the FFT pattern indicate that the basal plane of the synthesized thin film is (001), i.e. the c-axis of MoS₂ materials perpendicular to the thin film. From the STEM image we can directly measure the lattice constant as a=b=0.32 nm, consistent with bulk MoS₂ materials. As STEM-HAADF imaging is dependent on the atomic number, we can identify the positions of Mo and S atoms in the monolayer by the difference in image contrast (Mo atoms show much higher contrast than S atoms), as shown in FIG. 3 (panel b). Additionally, STEM-HAADF imaging provides a credible way to identify the stacking sequence in MoS₂ bilayers. We can find substantial difference between the images of MoS₂ monolayer (FIG. 3 (panel b)) and bilayer (FIG. 3 (panel c)). This difference indicates an AB stacking sequence in the MoS₂ bilayer, where the Mo atoms of one layer overlap with the position of the sulfur atoms in the other layer, typically referred as 2H—MoS₂ (FIG. 16). The experimental observation matches the modeled image for the AB stacking very well (FIG. 3 (panel c)).

FIG. 4—Optical and Electrical Characterizations of the Synthesized MoS₂ Monolayer Films:

(panel a) Photoluminescence (PL) of the synthesized and exfoliated MoS₂ monolayers. Both were dispersed on SiO₂/Si substrates. The synthesized monolayer was grown on sapphire substrates and then transferred to SiO₂/Si substrates for the PL measurement. Inset is PL mapping of an as-grown MoS₂ monolayer on sapphire substrates with the color representing normalized PL intensity at 665 nm as illustrated by the color bar.

(panel b) I_(ds)-V_(ds) curve for a field effect transistor (FET) made with the synthesized MoS₂ monolayer with gating voltages V_(gs) 0, 10, 20, 40 V. Inset, transfer characteristic for the FET with a source drain bias V_(ds) of 2 V.

The synthesized thin films show excellent optical quality that is comparable to exfoliated MoS₂. FIG. 4 (panel a) shows the PL spectra collected from exfoliated and synthesized MoS₂ monolayers. Raman peaks of the MoS₂ materials are also included, and the PL spectra are normalized to the intensity of corresponding Raman peaks. The normalization is to better correlate the measured PL intensity with the intrinsic luminescence efficiency of the materials.⁴ Two peaks can be found in the PL spectra, ˜620 nm and ˜670 nm, and can be correlated to the B1 and A1 excitons of MoS₂, respectively.⁴ We can find similar PL peaks from both synthesized and exfoliated MoS₂ monolayer. This suggests a comparable optical quality in the synthesized film with the exfoliated MoS₂. We should note that the synthesized monolayer was grown on sapphire substrates. For the convenience of comparison with the exfoliated materials that were dispersed onto SiO₂/Si substrates, the synthesized monolayer was transferred to SiO₂/Si substrates for the PL measurement (see the effect of substrates on PL in FIG. 17). We find that the PL from the MoS₂ monolayer film grown on SiO₂/Si substrates is much weaker than the films grown on sapphire (FIG. 18), probably due to a poorer crystalline quality in the films grown on SiO₂/Si substrates than those grown on sapphire as reported previously.¹⁹ Additionally, the PL efficiency of exfoliated MoS₂ has been well known substantially decreasing with the increase in the layer number due to an evolution of the bandgap with the layer number. We can find that the PL efficiency of the synthesized MoS₂ bilayer is indeed substantially smaller than that of synthesized monolayers (FIG. 19). This suggests that the bandgap of the synthetic MoS₂ film bears a similar dependence on the layer number as the exfoliated MoS₂. To illustrate the uniformity of the optical quality, we performed PL mapping over an area of 20 μm×20 μm in the synthesized monolayer. The measurement demonstrates a uniform distribution in the PL intensity (FIG. 4 (panel a inset)), confirming the uniformity as suggested by the Raman measurements shown in the preceding text.

We also evaluated the electrical quality of the synthesized MoS₂ monolayer film. We transferred the thin film grown on sapphire to degenerately doped silicon substrates covered with 230-nm-thick SiO₂, and fabricated bottom-gate transistors by evaporating 5 nm Ti/50 nm Au electrodes on top of the MoS₂ thin film. We performed electrical measurements at room temperature and in ambient environment using the degenerately doped silicon substrate as the gate and deposited Au electrodes as the source and drain. FIG. 4 (panel b) shows typical output characteristic and transfer characteristic (inset) curves of the device. These results indicate that the device is an n-type channel field effect transistor, consistent with other works on exfoliated ones.^(5,29,30) The linear dependence of the current on the source-drain bias _(Vds) suggests that the contacts between the MoS₂ thin film and the electrodes are ohmic. This ensures that the observed field effect behavior is from the monolayer MoS₂ channel rather than Schottky barriers at the contact. From the measurements, we can derive the field-effect mobility of charge carriers in the device as 0.003-0.03 cm²/V.S. This is reasonably comparable to previous reports on exfoliated monolayers measured in similar conditions (ambient environment, back gating with silicon oxide as the gate oxide).^(5,29,30) We can thus conclude that the synthesized thin film has a reasonably comparable electrical quality with exfoliated MoS₂.

Discussions

The observed remarkable uniformity and controllability in the synthesized MoS₂ film strongly suggests that this synthetic process is self-limiting. Unlike the self-limiting mechanism for the growth of graphene,³¹ which is related with the limited solubility of carbon source in the catalyst, our experimental results suggest that the partial pressure of gaseous MoS₂ species and the interaction of MoS₂ thin films with the substrate play key roles in this self-limiting mechanism.

We found in experiments that the layer number of the MoS₂ thin film increases with the amount of precursor materials (FIG. 20, FIG. 21, FIG. 22) and the total pressure in the synthetic setup (FIG. 23-FIG. 25). Our analysis of the growth dynamics indicates that this can essentially be correlated to the partial pressure of gaseous MoS₂ species P_(Mo). The partial pressure P_(Mo) increases with the amount of precursor materials and the total pressure, and higher partial pressures can results in larger layer numbers in the synthesized thin film (FIG. 25-FIG. 26). We also found that the layer number is dependent on the receiving substrate, including its temperature and type of materials (FIG. 27-FIG. 29). For instance, with comparable experimental conditions, the film grown on sapphire is monolayer, but the one grown on highly ordered pyrolytic graphite (HOPG), which has similar layered structure as MoS₂, is bilayer. This can be ascribed to the vapor pressure of MoS₂ thin films P^(o) _(Mo). The vapor pressure P^(o) _(Mo) increases with temperature and can be affected by the interaction of MoS₂ thin films with the substrate.

These experimental results suggest that the relative amplitude between the partial pressure of gaseous MoS₂ species P_(Mo) and the vapor pressure of MoS₂ thin films P^(o) _(Mo) determine the layer number of the synthesized thin film. Vapor pressure indicates a capability of atoms escaping from a solid phase into a gas phase. The van der Waals (attractive) interaction of MoS₂ overlayers with the substrate may suppress the escaping of MoS₂ atoms, and subsequently cause a decrease in the vapor pressure. Similar suppression effects of the interaction with substrates on the vapor pressure of overlayers has been documented with other materials, for instance, polymers.³² Because the interaction of the outmost MoS₂ layer with the substrate decays with the overall thickness of the film increasing, the vapor pressure of MoS₂ thin films may increase with the layer number (FIG. 24). This layer-dependent vapor pressure of MoS₂ thin films offers the possibility to precisely control the layer number. For instance, by controlling the partial pressure _(PMo) in the middle of the vapor pressures of MoS₂ monolayer (P^(o) _(Mo,1)) and bilayer (P^(o) _(Mo,2)) films as P^(o) _(Mo,1)<P_(Mo)<P^(o) _(Mo,2) could result in an exclusive growth of MoS₂ monolayers on the substrate. In this case, the larger vapor pressure of MoS₂ bilayers would automatically prevent the continuous growth once a MoS₂ monolayer film is formed, regardless continuous supply of MoS₂ species. The observed different layer numbers in the film grown on HOPG and sapphire confirms the role of the interaction with the substrate in the growth (FIG. 29).

In conclusion, we demonstrate a new chemical vapor deposition approach that can provide capabilities to produce large-area, high quality MoS₂ monolayer and few-layer films with unprecedented uniformity. Our experimental results strongly suggest that this synthetic process is self-limiting dictated by the balance between the equilibrium pressure of MoS₂ thin films and the partial pressure of MoS₂ species in the vapor phase. As a final note, this synthetic approach can be readily scaled up to produce wafer-scale 2D MoS₂ for the development of practical electronic and photonic devices. It is poised to enable 2D MoS₂ as a useful functional material to revolutionize a wide range of fields including information technology, optoelectronics, chemical/biological sensing, and spintronics.

Methods

MoS₂ thin films were synthesized in a tube furnace as illustrated in FIG. 5. In a typical growth, 4-20 mg of molybdenum chloride (MoCl₅) powder (99.99%, Sigma-Aldrich) was placed at the center of the furnace and 1 g of sulfur powder (Sigma-Aldrich) were placed at the upstream entry of the furnace. Receiving substrates were placed downstream. Typical conditions for high-quality MoS₂ thin film growth include a temperature of 850° C. a flow rate of 50 sccm, and a pressure around 2 Torr. The layer number of the synthetic MoS₂ thin film can be controlled by control of the amount of MoCl₅ precursor or the total pressure in the synthetic setup.

The crystal structure of the resulting products were analyzed with transmission electron microscope (TEM, JEOL-2010) and aberration-corrected scanning transmission electron microscope (STEM, FEI Titan 80-300 STEM) with probe C_(s) corrector operated as 200 KV under STEM mode. The as-grown thin film was transferred to TEM grid for the structure characterization. The thickness and surface topology were measured using atomic force microscope (AFM, Veeco Dimension-3000). Raman mapping and photoluminescence (PL) measurements were carried out using Horiba Labram HR800 Raman Microscopy with an excitation wavelength of 532 nm. X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy were performed on SPECS XPS using an Mg Kα x ray source. The field-effect transistor device was fabricated by evaporating Ti/Au (5/200 nm) electrodes directly onto top of MoS₂ films transferred to degenerately doped Si substrates with 230 nm thick silicon oxide. A copper grid (100 mesh, 30 micron spacing, Ted Pella) was placed on the top of the thin film as mask for the electrode fabrication. This gives a relative large channel with a length L=30 μm and a width W=230 μm. The electrical measurements were performed in ambient conditions using a probe station (Karl Suss PSM6)

Scalable Synthesis of Uniform, High-Quality Monolayer and Few-Layer MoS₂

Films

Studies of the Growth Mechanism

See FIGS. 5-19 and brief descriptions.

The observed remarkable uniformity and controllability in the synthesized MoS₂ film suggests that this synthetic process is self-limiting. We found in experiments that the layer number of the MoS₂ thin film depended on the amount of precursor materials, the total pressure in the synthetic setup, and the receiving substrate (i.e. the temperature and material of the substrate). These experimental results suggest that the partial pressure of gaseous MoS₂ species and the interaction of MoS₂ thin films with the receiving substrate play key roles in this self-limiting mechanism. It is different from the self-limiting mechanism reported for the growth of graphene, which is related with the limited solubility of carbon source in the catalyst of copper.³³

We found that the layer number of resulting MoS₂ thin films shown dependence on the amount of MoCl₅ used in experiments. A larger amount of MoCl₅ generally yields thicker films. With typical experimental conditions, using 1-4 mg MoCl₅ gives rise to MoS₂ monolayers, 5-10 mg for MoS₂ bilayers, 11-15 mg for MoS₂ trilayers, and 16-25 mg for quadra-layers (FIG. 20-21). We cannot see substantial deposition of MoS₂ when the amount of MoCl₅ is decreased down to less than 1 mg. And the precise control of the layer number tends to be more difficult for thicker films. FIG. 20 lists the correlation between the amount of MoCl₅ used in experiments and the lay number of resulting MoS₂ thin films. Also listed is the frequency difference Δk between the A_(1g) and E_(2g) peaks in the Raman spectra of these thin films. See FIG. 20.

The growth of MoS₂ thin films was also found dependent on the total pressure in the synthetic setup. Typically, higher pressures give rise to larger thickness. FIG. 23 shows the optical images and Raman spectra of MoS₂ structures grown under widely different total pressures. The amount of MoCl₅ used in all these experiments was kept identical (15 mg). We can see that the MoS₂ thin film grown at a total pressure of 2 Torr shows bluish in color and has 3 layers with a Δk of 23.2 cm⁻¹ in the Raman spectrum. In contrast, the thin film grown at 50 Torr is green and has a larger Δk of 25.3 cm⁻¹ that is similar to that of bulk MoS₂ materials. This indicates a substantial larger thickness in the film grown at 50 Torr than the one grown at 2 Torr. An even larger total pressure can give rise to a growth of bulky structure such as triangular plates (FIG. 23(panel d)). The thickness of the triangular plates is measured as ˜100-200 nm. FIG. 24 gives another example to illustrate the effect of the total pressure on the growth. In these experiments, the amount of MoCl₅ used in these experiments was 4 mg, and we used different total pressures but kept all other conditions comparable. We can find that the Δk of the resulting thin film increases from 20.4 cm⁻¹ at 2 Torr to 23.2 cm⁻¹ at 10 Torr and further 24.6 cm⁻¹ at 50 Torr. Again, this indicates that the layer number of the MoS₂ thin film increases with the total pressure.

The effects of the amount of MoCl₅ precursor and the total pressure on the layer number of the synthesized MoS₂ thin film can be essentially correlated to their effects on the partial pressure of gaseous MoS₂ species. To illustrate this notion, we examined the synthetic process (FIG. 25). The synthetic process includes five major steps: 1) sublimation of sulfur and MoCl₅; 2) reaction of MoCl₅ and S to produce gaseous MoS₂ species; 3) transfer of the MoS₂ species downstream by carrier gas; 4) diffusion of MoS₂ species from the gas phase onto receiving substrates; and 5) precipitation of MoS₂ on the substrates. The precursor of MoCl₅ may react with sulfur at high temperature to give rise to MoS₂. In experiments, we use excessive amount of sulfur (the molar ratio of sulfur and MoCl₅ is >1000:1) to ensure the vapor of S far bigger than that of MoCl₅. As a result, we can reasonably assume that the reaction of MoCl₅ is complete.

With the assumption of the full reaction of MoCl₅ vapor, the partial pressure of MoS₂, P_(Mo), depends on the sublimation rate (molar loss rate per unit surface area) of sulfur Φ_(S) and MoCl₅, Φ_(Mo), the flow rate of carrier gas Ar, J_(Ar) (mol/s), and the total pressure P_(totai) in the synthetic setup as equation FIG. 25 (S1).

AMo and AS are the surface area of the precursor materials MoCl₅ and sulfur, respectively, which increases with the amount of precursor powder. The sublimation rate depends on the T of the precursor materials, and the difference between the equilibrium vapor pressure _(Pvap) of precursor materials and the partial pressure _(Ppar) of these materials in vapor, Φ=(P_(vap)−P_(par))/(2πMRT)^(0.5), where M is the molecular weight of the materials, and R is the molar gas constant. With the typical conditions used in experiments (T˜300° C., the weight of sulfur: 1 g, the particle size in sulfur par 0.1 mm), we can estimate that the sublimation flux of sulfur powder is around 0.015 mol/s. This is much larger than the typical flux (50 sccm) of carrier gas, J_(Ar)˜0.0001 mol/s. By the same token, we can also conclude that the sublimation flux of sulfur is orders of magnitude larger than that of MoCl₅. Therefore, during the synthesis period, eq. (FIG. 25 S1) can be further simplified as equation (FIG. 25 S2).

From eq. (S2), we can see that the partial pressure of MoS₂ (P_(Mo)) increases with the amount of MoCl₅ precursor (increasing A_(Mo)) and the total pressure P_(total). This correlation, along with the observed effects of the amount of MoCl₅ precursor and the total pressure on the growth, strongly suggest that the partial pressure of MoS₂ species plays a key role in determining the layer number of the synthesized MoS₂ thin film. A larger partial pressure of gaseous MoS₂ species may give rise to MoS₂ films with larger layer numbers. As corroborating evidence for this analysis, we observed that the flow rate of carrier gas bears negligible effects on the layer number of the MoS₂ films. FIG. 26 shows the Raman spectra collected from the MoS₂ thin films grown with different flow rates of carrier gas (Ar). We can find that the layer number of the thin films remains unchanged regardless a dramatic variation in the flow rate by one order of magnitude. This confirms that, due to the dominance of the sublimation flux of sulfur, the flow rate of carrier gas only has negligible effects on the partial pressure of MoS₂ species. With this said, it also confirms that the partial pressure of MoS₂ is a key parameter to determine the layer number.

To better understand the dependence of the layer number on the partial pressure of MoS₂, we examine the precipitation reaction,

MoS₂(g) to MoS₂(s)

where g and s refer to gaseous and solid phases, respectively. This precipitation reaction is governed by two pressures, the partial pressure of the gaseous species and the equilibrium vapor pressure (or referred as vapor pressure) of the material in solid phase. It has been well known that a supersaturation of the gaseous species is the thermodynamics driving force for precipitation reactions in CVD processes. In another word, to drive this precipitation reaction, the partial pressure of the MoS₂ species (P_(Mo)) in the vapor phase must be larger than the vapor pressure of MoS₂ thin films (P^(o) _(Mo)) on the substrate, P_(Mo)>P^(o) _(Mo). Essentially, it is the relative amplitude of the partial pressure P_(Mo) and the vapor pressure P^(o) _(Mo) that decides the layer number of the synthesized MoS₂ thin film. This can be elucidated by our experimental observation on the dependence of the layer number on the temperature of the receiving substrates. As illustrated in the FIG. 21 inset, we placed three receiving substrates in the synthetic setup, and examined the layer number of the MoS₂ thin film grown on these substrates. These substrates had different local temperatures, 850° C., 750° C., and 650° C. for the substrate 1 (referred as sub1 in FIG. 27 inset), substrate 2, and substrate 3, respectively. We can find that the layer number of the thin film increases with the temperature of receiving substrates decreasing. In this experiment, the partial pressure _(PMo) can be reasonably assumed identical for these three substrates, but the vapor pressure of MoS₂ thin films _(PoMo) exponentially decreases with the temperature. The experimental observation indicates that a larger supersaturation (P_(Mo)−P^(o) _(Mo)) tends to give rise to larger layer numbers.

In CVD processes, a larger supersatuation may drive the gaseous species to precipitate faster. However, we do not think that the precipitation rate would be the major reason for the observed precise control in the layer number of the synthesized MoS₂ thin films. Should the precipitation rate be the major control mechanism, it would be extremely difficult to produce large-area, uniform MoS₂ films with layer number precisely controlled to be 1, 2, 3, or more. This would request a perfect timing in controlling the precipitation to stop right at the end of the formation of each individual layer, which would be impossible in our synthetic setup. The growth of large-area, highly uniform MoS₂ thin films in our experiments suggests that this precipitation is a self-limiting process, i.e. the precipitation may automatically stop at the end of the formation of each individual layer.

We believe that the self-limiting mechanism may lie in a balance between the partial pressure of gaseous MoS₂ species P_(Mo) and the vapor pressure of MoS₂ thin films (P^(o) _(Mo)) on the substrate. The vapor pressure of MoS₂ thin films could increase with the layer number. Therefore, the precipitation of gaseous MoS₂ species may be automatically stopped at a specific layer number if the P^(o) _(Mo) of MoS₂ thin films would be made larger than P_(Mo) should one more layer be added. For instance, the exclusive growth of MoS₂ monolayer could be achieved by controlling the partial pressure _(PMo) in the middle of the vapor pressures of MoS₂ monolayer (P^(o) _(Mo,1)) and bilayer (P^(o) _(Mo,2)) films as P^(o) _(Mo,1)<P_(Mo)<P^(o) _(Mo,2). In this case, the larger vapor pressure of MoS₂ bilayers may automatically prevent the continuous growth once a MoS₂ monolayer film is formed, regardless continuous supply of MoS₂ species. Additionally, the vapor pressure of the MoS₂ thin film P^(o) _(Mo) may increases with the temperature. For instance, the vapor pressure of MoS₂ trilayer films P^(o) _(Mo,3) at 750° C. might be similar to that of MoS₂ bilayer films P^(o) _(Mo,2) at 850° C. (the vapor pressure increases with either the temperature or the layer number increasing). Therefore, the same partial pressure of gaseous MoS₂ may give rise to the growth of thicker films at lower temperature.

The dependence of the vapor pressure of MoS₂ thin films on the layer number may be caused by the interaction with substrates, as illustrated in FIG. 28. The vapor pressure indicates a capability of atoms escaping from the solid phase into the gas phase. However, the van der Waals (attractive) interaction of MoS₂ overlayers with the substrate may substantially suppress the escaping of MoS₂ atoms. This can subsequently cause a decrease in the vapor pressure. Additionally, this interaction is expected to quickly decrease with an increase in the layer number, and the atoms in thicker MoS₂ films would be able to escape into the gas phase more easily. As a result, the vapor pressure of MoS₂ thin film may increase with the layer number. For instance, the vapor pressure of MoS₂ monolayer films (P^(o) _(Mo,1)) may be smaller than that of MoS₂ bilayer films (P^(o) _(Mo,2)), and the vapor pressure of MoS₂ bilayer films (P^(o) _(Mo,2)) may be smaller than that of MoS₂ trilayer films (P^(o) _(Mo,3)), P^(o) _(Mo,1)<P^(o) _(Mo,2)<P^(o) _(Mo,3). The difference between the vapor pressures of MoS₂ films with neighboring layer number (P^(o) _(Mo,n+1)−P^(o) _(Mo,n), n refers to the layer number) may decrease with the layer number because the interaction with the substrate quickly decays with the layer number. This is indeed consistent with our experimental observations that a precise control of the layer number tends to be more difficult for thicker films, often resulting a mixture of layer numbers. Similar suppression effects of substrates on the vapor pressure have been well demonstrated in other materials adsorbed on substrates, for instance, polymers. ³⁴

To further examine this self-limiting mechanism, we studied the growth on different receiving substrates. In experiments we used two types of receiving substrates. One is the traditional three-dimensional (3D) bonded materials such as silicon oxide and sapphire (referred as 3D substrates), the other is highly ordered pyrolytic graphite (HOPG) that has a similar layered structure as MoS₂ (referred as 2D substrates). We grow MoS₂ films on these different substrates under identical experimental conditions (the different substrates were placed side by side in the tube furnace). No difference has been found in the layer number between the MoS₂ films grown on sapphire and those grown on silicon oxide substrates. However, we can find a substantial difference between the films grown on sapphire and HOPG (from Ted Pella) as shown in FIG. 29. For example, we can find that, with the same experimental conditions, while the film grown on sapphire or SiO₂/Si substrate is monolayer (Δk 20.4 cm⁻¹), the one grown on HOPG is bilayer (Δk 22.4 cm⁻¹).

This result confirms that the interaction of MoS₂ overlayers with the substrate plays an important role in the self-limiting growth. Dictated by the nature of layered structures, there is no dangling bond at the surface of MoS₂ overlayers. Therefore, the interaction between the MoS₂ overlayer and substrates is always van del Waals forces. However, the strength of the van del Waals force with conventional 3D substrates e.g. sapphire, is well known different from that with 2D substrates (such as HOPG). This difference has been extensively manifested by the van del Waals epitaxy growth of layered materials on 2D substrates. The van der Waals interaction between layer material overlayers and layered materials substrate may be strong enough to ensure the growth of the overlayer following the lattice of underlying substrates. In our experiment, the different interactions of the MoS₂ overlyer with sapphire and HOPG may cause different vapor pressures of MoS₂ thin films. Therefore, the same partial pressure of MoS₂ can give rise to a growth of thicker MoS₂ film on HOPG.

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It is to be understood that, while the invention has been described in conjunction with the detailed description, thereof, the foregoing description is intended to illustrate and not limit the scope of the invention. Other aspects, advantages, and modifications of the invention are within the scope of the claims set forth below. All publications, patents, and patent applications cited in this specification are herein incorporated by reference as if each individual publication or patent application were specifically and individually indicated to be incorporated by reference. 

What is claimed is:
 1. A synthesis process comprising: sublimation of sulfur and MoCl₅; reaction of MoCl₅ and S to produce gaseous MoS₂ species; transfer of the MoS₂ species by carrier gas; diffusion and precipitation of MoS₂ species from the gas phase onto a substrate under suitable conditions that one to four layer(s) of MoS₂ form on the substrate, wherein the substrate is highly ordered pyrolytic graphite (HOPG).
 2. The synthesis process of claim 1, wherein MoCl₅ is reacted with sulfur at a temperature of about 300° C. to about 1000° C. to give rise to MoS₂ on the substrate.
 3. The synthesis process of claim 2, wherein MoCl₅ is reacted with sulfur at a temperature of about 600° C. to about 900° C. to give rise to MoS₂ on the substrate.
 4. The synthesis process of claim 1, wherein one layer of MoS₂ is formed on the substrate.
 5. The synthesis process of claim 1, wherein two layers of MoS₂ are formed on the substrate.
 6. The synthesis process of claim 1, wherein four layers of MoS₂ are formed on the substrate.
 7. A method of producing hydrogen which comprises contacting a suitable reactant under appropriate conditions with the layered MoS₂ substrate prepared by the synthesis process of claim
 1. 8. A method of making a large-area MoS₂ thin film on a surface of a substrate, the method comprising the steps of: reacting MoCl₅ with a stoichiometric excess of S in a reactor at an elevated temperature to produce gaseous MoS₂, depositing the gaseous MoS₂ at a pressure onto the surface of the substrate; wherein the amount of the MoCl₅ and the pressure are controlled to produce the large-area MoS₂ thin film on the surface of the substrate; and wherein the substrate is selected from the group consisting of silicon, silicon oxide, sapphire, graphite, and a combination thereof.
 9. The method of claim 8, wherein the large-area MoS₂ thin film consists of about 1-4 layers of MoS₂.
 10. The method of claim 8, wherein the large-area MoS₂ thin film consists of a monolayer or a bilayer of MoS₂.
 11. The method of claim 8, wherein the elevated temperature is about 300° C. to about 1000° C.
 12. The method of claim 8, wherein the pressure is about 2 Torr to 10 Torr.
 13. The method of claim 8, wherein the large-area MoS₂ thin film has an area of about 1 cm² or more.
 14. The method of claim 8, wherein the large-area MoS₂ thin film has an area of about 1 cm² to about 3 cm².
 15. The method of claim 8, wherein the large-area MoS₂ thin film has a Raman spectra with an E_(2g) band associated with in-plane vibration of Mo in the MoS₂ thin film, and the full width at half maximum of the E_(2g) peak is about 4.2 cm⁻¹ or less.
 16. The method of claim 8, wherein the large-area MoS₂ thin film has an average thickness of about 0.68 nm to about 2.54 nm.
 17. The method of claim 8, wherein the large-area MoS₂ thin film has a Raman spectra with an A_(1g) band associated with out-of-plane vibration of sulfur atoms in the MoS₂ thin film and an E_(2g) band associated with in-plane vibration of Mo in the MoS₂ thin film, and wherein there is a frequency difference in the A_(1g) band and the E_(2g) band of about 20.2 cm⁻¹ to about 24.0 cm⁻¹.
 18. The method of claim 8, wherein the large-area MoS₂ thin film has a roughness of less than 0.2 nm.
 19. The method of claim 8, wherein the method further comprises balancing the partial pressure of the gaseous MoS₂ and the vapor pressure of the MoS₂ thin film on the substrate to produce the large-area MoS₂ thin film on the surface of the substrate consisting of 1-4 layers of MoS₂.
 20. The method of claim 8, wherein the molar ratio of the S to the MoCl₅ is greater than 1000:1. 